Manetic resonance cholangiopancreatography
It cannot replace endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) as interventions are not possible.

Sepsis is a generalised inflammatory response to infection. Systemic inflammatroy response syndrome (SIRS) can occur in many conditions other than sepsis as well.
Low tidal volume ventilation is useful in ARDS. Activated protein C is useful in severe sepsis, especially if Apache score is more than 25.
Severity of sepsis
Sepsis with organ dysfunction is considered severe sepsis: 25 -30% mortality. If there is significant hypotension, it is called septic shock: 60 -70% mortalitly.
Increase in oxygen extraction in a normal individual occurs due to “capillary recruitment”. But in severe sepsis, this does not …

Extended spectrum beta lactamases (ESBLs) are enzymes that mediate resistance to extended-spectrum or third generation cephalosporins like ceftazidime, cefotaxime, and ceftriaxone and monobactams like aztreonam. ESBLs do not affect cephamycins like cefoxitin and cefotetan or carbapenems like meropenem or imipenem.

It is a heterogenous group of conditions with cytopenias, hypercellular / dysplastic marrow and is a premalignant condition. Dyserythropoesis manifest as ring sideroblasts.
In MDS, there is decreased normal hemopoetic stem cells, proliferation of dyspoetic marrow cells, selective outgrowth of MDS cells and malignant transformation.
Most patients with MDS die of cytopenias than of leukemia. Transfusion dependence is also an important prognostic factor in MDS. Those who need more transfusions have a poorer prognosis.
5q deletion (5q minus) syndrome has been identified as an important factor in MDS, but this …

Gastrointestinal stromal tumour can be even be treated on an outpatient basis with imatinib.

Carcinoma: cytokeratin
Sarcoma: desmin / vimentin
Malignant polycythemia rubra vera: V617F JAK2 mutation
FLT3 mutation predicts prognosis in AML
Chromosome 13 abnormality will indicate poor response to conventional treatment in multiple myeloma

Flourescent in situ hybridisation

Hurthle cells or Askanazy cells seen in Hashimoto’s thyroiditis.

Antimicrosomal antibodies (antithyroid peroxidase antibodies) (AMA/TPO):
Closely correlates with thyroid damage and lymphocyte inflammation.
Anti thyroglobulin antibodies (ATG): less frequent than Anti-TPO and their role is less clear.
TSH receptor antibodies (TSHR): Seen in Graves disease, estimated currently only in research labs.

Incretins are a group of gastrointestinal hormones that cause an increase in the amount of insulin released from the beta cells after eating, even before blood glucose levels become elevated. The two main incretins are glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and Gastric inhibitory peptide(GIP). Both GLP-1 and GIP are rapidly inactivated by the enzyme dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4). DPP-4 inhibitors improve glucose control by increasing incretin levels in type 2 diabetes. They are less likely to produce hypoglycemia. DPP-4 inhibitors target the beta cells through the incretin pathway. Sitaglipgtin is an FDA approved …